Comparing PV string currents: Detecting partial shading, bypass diode issues and connection faults
Different currents in supposedly identical PV strings are a valuable indication—but not yet a definitive...
Condensing Measurement Data at the Edge: Combining Average, Minimum, Maximum and Raw Data Effectively
A sensor supplies one measured value every second. With 100 measuring points, this already produces...
Calibrating a Pressure Sensor with Ascending and Descending Series: Evaluating Hysteresis Separately from Linearity Errors
A pressure sensor can indicate different values at 50% of its measuring range depending on...
Selecting a Conductive Level Switch: Considering Minimum Conductivity, Electrode Spacing and Build-up
Conductive level switches are a simple and robust solution for detecting water and other electrically...
Ultrasonic Measurement in a V, Z or W Path: Choosing the Right Sound Path for the Pipe Diameter and Medium
In clamp-on ultrasonic measurement, the sensors are attached to the outside of the pipe. The...
Protecting a Pressure Measuring Point Against Overpressure: Correctly Sizing the Overpressure Protector, Measuring Range and Safety Margin
A pressure measuring point operates reliably at 6 bar under normal conditions. However, when the...
Ring Earth Conductors and Earthing Systems: Assessing Step and Touch Voltages During an Earth Fault
The measured earth resistance of an installation is low, and the connections of the ring...
Generating Symmetrical ± Voltages with a Bench Power Supply: Connecting Two Outputs in Series Correctly
Operational amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers, analog filters and many other analog circuits require more than a...
SIL2 Melt Pressure Sensor in an Extruder: Correctly Planning Proof Testing, Diagnostics and the Safety Function
Melt pressure is one of the most important process variables in an extrusion system. Excessive...
Dry-Block Calibrator with the Wrong Insert: Air Gap, Immersion Depth and Axial Uniformity as Sources of Error
A dry-block calibrator can control temperature very stably and still produce an incorrect calibration result....